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The Aztec civilization was a powerful empire that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to early 16th centuries, with its capital at Tenochtitlán, before falling to Spanish conquest in 1521. The Aztecs (also called Mexica) migrated from a legendary homeland called Aztlán to the Valley of Mexico around the 12th century. They founded Tenochtitlán in 1345 on an island in Lake Texcoco, which became one of the largest cities in the world at the time. Organized into city-states (altepetl), their emperor, or Huey Tlatoani, ruled with nobles, priests, and military leaders. Their economy was based on tribute from conquered states, agriculture (especially chinampas, or floating gardens), and trade. Based on a class system of Nobility (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs, and slaves. Their religion was Polytheistic, with gods like Huitzilopochtli (war and sun), Tlaloc (rain), and Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent), with human sacrifice being central to their society as it was believed to sustain the cosmos. There achievement in architecture and engineering included the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán which was a twin pyramid dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc; Causeways, aqueducts, and canals to manage the lake environment. Their richly illustrated manuscripts recorded history, religion, and tribute lists. In 1519, Hernán Cortés and Spanish forces allied with rival city-states (like Tlaxcala) against the Aztecs and after a brutal siege, Tenochtitlán fell in 1521, marking the end of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs left a profound imprint on Mexican identity including on the Mexican flag which depicts an eagle on a cactus, echoing the Aztec founding myth of Tenochtitlán. Modern Mexico City sits atop the ruins of their capital. The Maya Civilization was a powerful Mesoamerican culture that thrived from around 2000 BCE until the Spanish conquest in 1697 CE, renowned for its advanced writing system, monumental architecture, mathematics, astronomy, and complex city-states. The Maya lived across southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. Their territory included the Yucatán Peninsula, the Guatemalan Highlands, and the lowlands of Petén. Having developed a Writing System, the Maya script was the most sophisticated in the pre-Columbian Americas, with hieroglyphs recording dynastic histories. They tracked celestial movements with precision, creating the Long Count Calendar and predicting eclipses. They built stepped pyramids, palaces, ball courts, and observatories. Famous sites include Chichen Itza, Tikal, and Copán. Centuries before Europe adopted it the Maya had developed the concept of zero. Competent in Art and Culture they were known for elaborate murals, pottery, textiles, and ritual practices including bloodletting and human sacrifice. The Maya was organized into city-states, each ruled by kings and nobles. Their religion was polytheistic, with gods like Itzamná (creator god), Kukulcán (Feathered Serpent), and Kinich Ahau (Sun God). Rituals included offerings, dances, and sacrifices to maintain cosmic balance. The Classic collapse (8th–9th centuries) saw many southern cities abandoned, likely due to environmental issues, warfare, and political upheaval. The Northern centres like Chichen Itza continued until the Spanish conquest. Today, over 6 million Maya descendants live in the same regions, speaking more than 28 Mayan languages and preserving traditions. Their intellectual and cultural contributions - especially in astronomy, mathematics, and architecture - remain foundational to world heritage. The Mixtec civilization was a network of powerful city-states in southern Mexico (Oaxaca, Puebla, Guerrero) that flourished from around 500 BCE to the Spanish conquest in the 1520s, renowned for its artistry, codices, and dynastic traditions. The Mixtecs never formed a single empire; instead, they lived in independent kingdoms (ñuu) bound by diplomacy, marriage alliances, and warfare. Their Nobility traced their lineage to divine ancestors, often depicted in codices as emerging from caves, trees, or sacred mountains. They worshipped gods of rain (Dzahui) and fire, with sacred landscapes (hills, caves, springs). Famous rulers included Eight Deer Jaguar Claw, a legendary king from Tilantongo who expanded Mixtec power to the coast. Painting their histories on deerskin, such as the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, recording dynasties, wars, and rituals. Speaking diverse dialects of Mixtec (Tu’un Savi), many of which are still spoken today by hundreds of thousands of people. They were renowned goldsmiths, producing turquoise mosaics, and obsidian work. By the 15th century, Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with the Zapotecs and later the Aztecs. After the Spanish conquest (1523 CE), Mixtec elites adapted by preserving traditions through syncretism with Catholicism. Today, the Mixtec remain one of the largest Indigenous groups in Mexico, with vibrant communities in Oaxaca and dispersed populations in the U.S. The Mixtecs were masters of diplomacy and artistry, shaping Mesoamerican politics and aesthetics. Their codices provide some of the richest narrative records of pre-Columbian history, and their goldwork was so prized that the Aztecs revered them as cultural exemplars. The Olmec civilization was the earliest major Mesoamerican culture, flourishing from about 1200 - 400 BCE in the Gulf Coast lowlands of present-day Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. They are often called the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica because many later civilizations, including the Maya and Aztec, inherited their religious, artistic, and architectural traditions. The Olmecs are most famous for 17 massive basalt heads (1.5 - 3.4 m tall), thought to represent rulers wearing helmet-like headgear. They created jade masks, figurines, and “were-jaguar” motifs blending human and feline traits. A Polytheistic religion, with jaguar symbolism and rituals involving sacrifice, cave ceremonies, and pilgrimages. Evidence suggests they practiced the Mesoamerican ballgame and ritual bloodletting, traditions later adopted by Maya and Aztec. The Cascajal Block (c. 900 BCE) may represent the earliest known writing in the Americas. They also developed early calendrical systems. Known to have traded jade, obsidian, feathers, and rubber across Mesoamerica. They also cultivated maize and beans. The Olmecs established patterns of urban planning, ceremonial centres, and religious symbolism that shaped later Mesoamerican civilizations. Their influence reached as far south as Nicaragua through trade networks. By around 400 BCE, their major centres were abandoned, though their cultural influence persisted in successor societies. The Toltec civilization flourished in central Mexico between roughly 950 - 1150 CE, they emerged from the Tolteca-Chichimeca peoples, who migrated from the northwest deserts into the Valley of Mexico around the 9th century. Centred at the capital city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan (modern Tula, Hidalgo), meaning “Place of the Reeds,” a common Mesoamerican term for great urban centres. They were renowned for their artistry, militarism, and cultural influence, later revered by the Aztecs as their intellectual and spiritual predecessors. The Toltecs established a state centred at Tula, with a population of 30,000 - 40,000 at its peak. Tula featured pyramids, ball courts, and monumental sculptures. The most iconic are the Atlantean warrior columns, carved stone figures representing elite warriors. Society was hierarchical, with rulers, nobles, warriors, artisans, and farmers. Toltecs were master craftsmen in metalwork, pottery, and textiles. Their architectural and religious styles spread widely, especially to Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán, where Toltec-Maya fusion is evident in the Temple of Kukulcán. Their religion was Polytheistic, with strong devotion to Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent) and militaristic orders like the Jaguar and Eagle warriors. By the 12th century, Tula fell due to invasions by northern Chichimec peoples, including the ancestors of the Aztecs. The Aztecs mythologized the Toltecs as paragons of civilization, blending history and legend in their oral traditions. The Toltecs were to become a cultural model for later Mesoamerican societies. Their emphasis on militarism, artistry, and the Feathered Serpent cult shaped Aztec ideology. Archaeological remains at Tula and Toltec-style elements at Chichén Itzá testify to their enduring influence. The Zapotec civilization was one of the great pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica, flourishing in the Valley of Oaxaca (southern Mexico) from around 500 BCE until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Centred in the Valley of Oaxaca, with three sub-valleys (Etla, Tlacolula, and Zimatlán). Their major sites were Monte Albán which was the Zapotec capital, built on a mountain ridge, occupied from c. 500 BCE–750 CE. Mitla – a later ceremonial centre, famous for intricate geometric mosaics. They were to develop one of the earliest writing systems in Mesoamerica, possibly predating Maya glyphs. They used a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day solar calendar, similar to other Mesoamerican cultures. Their religion was Polytheistic, and they worshipped gods of rain, maize, fertility, and death. Ancestor veneration was central. Today, Zapotec descendants number over 400,000, speaking various Zapotec languages and maintaining vibrant traditions in weaving, festivals, and community governance. Monte Albán declined around 750 CE, possibly due to resource strain and political fragmentation. Power shifted to Mitla and other centres, which remained influential until the Spanish conquest in the 1520s.
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All Photographs were taken by and are copyright of Ron Gatepain
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